Xochiquetzal: Mexico's Goddess of Love

Every ancient culture has one - a goddess so beautiful and alluring that mortal men fall to their knees in awe of Her; and wars are fought to gain Her hand.

To the Greeks, She was Aphrodite; to the Romans, She was Venus; in the misty dawn of Britain, She was Gwenhwyfar; and to the Norse, She was Freya. She is the Goddess of Love and Fertility and, in Aztec Mexico, Her name was Xochiquetzal.

Xochiquetzal (pronounced shOw-chee-KET-sAl) was responsible for all that is beautiful in Mexico. The white sand beaches; the towering pyramids; the breath-taking canyons, gorges and waterfalls; the glorious dawns and sunsets; the lush greenery of the jungle; the grace of the cloudy mountains; the sweeping vistas of its deserts; the mystery of its deep caves and cenotes; and the warmth of the Mexican people, all come under Her domain. If it is beautiful and Mexican, then Xochiquetzal has cast her eye upon it.

Her name translates broadly as 'sacred flower' or 'flower feather'. Xochi is Nahuatl for 'flower'; while the second part, 'quetzel', references the strikingly colored birds that still live in the highlands of western Mexico. In Nahuatl, 'quetzelli' means 'brilliant tail feather', which describes these vibrant birds very well. The goddess wore those same feathers in Her head-dress; and She was followed everywhere by an entourage of birds and butterflies.


'Xochiquetzal' by Midnightstouch
Every eight years, the Aztecs held a festival in honor of their Goddess of Love. All those attending it would wear masks replendent with feathers. They represented those birds and butterflies that would trail Xochiquetzal. Each year, this deity was the guardian of the 20 days of Xochitl. During this period, beauty and truth reigned. People would take care over their appearance; and would share compliments, but only if they were truthful. It was a great time for an ego boost!

Her holy days were times of celebration and dancing, as well as the more carnal activities. There was no judgement here. Xochiquetzal is the patron of all who love; She is the guardian of prostitutes. Every time the wild dance causes lovers to catch each other's eye, then look for the presense of Xochiquetzal. She is human desire; She is the dance; She is the romantic meal and the whispered words.


But this Aztec goddess doesn't leave when the union is made. She was also there during pregnancy and childbirth. She was the patron of young mothers everywhere.

However, this was the Aztec people, so some aspects of Her worship appear horrific to the modern sensibilities.

As the Goddess of Beauty, Xochiquetzal claimed the artisians, sculptors, craftspeople and silversmiths amongst Her people. Every seven years, this sector of society would meet to select the most beautiful young woman they could find amongst the population. She would spend a year living in luxury, as the very personification of Xochiquetzal. People would confess their darkest secrets and deepest desires to her. Her every need would be attended to; and she would wear the most wonderful clothes and precious jewels.

Then after the year was up, she would be ritually sacrificed, during the festival of Xochiquetzal. It is believed that her skin would then be flayed from her dead body and stitched into an outfit. This was worn by the chief, male artisian, while he wove his own craft. This would bring the Goddess into the beauty of his weaving and bless their community for another eight years.


Amongst the pantheon of Aztec deities, Xochiquetzal has a twin brother: the flower prince, Xochipilli. She had many lovers and husbands. The first was Tlaloc, the Rain God, as rain and beauty make all of the wonderful vegetation in Mexico. She was also famously abducted by Tezcatlipoca, a central God in Aztec religion. He created the whole world, until a jealous quarrel with Xochiquetzal's son, Quetzalcoatl, led to the destruction of it all. Fortunately for us, Quetzalcoatl then recreated the Earth, thus we have the planet to live on!

(Incidentally, when the Spanish attempted to convert the Aztecs into Christianity, they found resistance. The Aztecs, ironically, found the notion of a crucified deity to be distasteful. Those evangelizing friars only made headway when they learned about Tezcatlipoca, the sacrificed God. They were able to link Him with Jesus Christ and Xochiquetzal with Mary, His mother. Hence the Aztecs were Christianized.)

Mexico is a truly beautiful country, with some of the most exquisite arts and crafts in the world. It is certainly a setting for romance and love. Xochiquetzal may now be merged entirely with Mary, Mother of God, but, as the Mother of Quetzalcoatl, She always was. Next time a magnificient Mexican landscape opens up before you, and you are hand in hand with your lover, nod towards the nearest bird or butterfly. Xochiquetzal has you blessed.

The Culture and Controversy of Cuicuilco

Mexico City is built on the remains of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. Before Tenochtitlán, there was another ancient city, the oldest in the entire valley. Cuicuilco was Mexico's Pompeii; a thriving, important place, with pyramids pre-dating Chichén Itzá and Teotihuacan, and a population of 20,000 people. Then the Xitle volcano erupted.



Parts of Cuicuilco are still visible now, but most is under the lava; and Mexico City is creeping on top of the remains.

In Aztec times, the lava plains were a wilderness. Miscreants were banished there, to die of exposure or to be bitten by the rattle snakes, which lived in the area then. Today, this is El Pedregal de San Ángel, or simply El Pedregal, an upper class residential district of Mexico City. Mansions cling to the mountainside, overlooking the major northern boulevards of the capital; hemmed in, to the east, by the University.

In the 1940s, this entire developement was designed and built by Luis Barragán. His vision was to create modernist houses in harmony with the landscape. Outcrops of volcanic rock, frozen in time since its post-eruption cooling, became garden walls; smoother plains became walkways and roads.



He called this the Gardens of El Pedregal. Experts have called it 'a turning point in Mexican modern architecture'. The complex was accessed through the Plaza de las Fuentes (Plaza of the Fountains), with fountains that intermittantly cast water high into the air. Prominent artists were brought in to add their talent to the aesthetics of the place. Chucho Reyes advised on colors; Mathias Goeritz created sculptures; Xavier Guerrero allowed the use of his specially formulated, rust-free paint. But the houses themselves were pure Barragán.



This is where the great and the good of the Mexican upper classes lived and still live. The years have lost much of the original architecture, under layers of expansion and home extensions. Mansions got larger and even the iconic Plaza de las Fuentes is now just a side-street, edged with sprawling housing plots.

However, those interested in how it once was can visit Mexico City's Museo Nacional de Arquitectura (National Museum of Architecture), in the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, on Avenida Juárez and Eje Central, in Lázaro Cárdenas. There is a permanent exhibition of Barragán's El Pedregal.

The Gardens of El Pedregal isn't the only modern development crowding in and on top of Cuicuilco. In 1997, Mexico made legal history, when members of the public sued the president and other dignitaries, over the construction of a shopping center and entertainment complex there. (Cuicuilco: Public Protection of Mexican Cultural Patrimony in an Archaeological Zone.) Building ultimately went ahead, but it left safeguards in law against future destruction of the site.



So what is all of the fuss about? Cuicuilco was certainly the oldest human settlement in the Valley of Mexico; it is possibly one of the most ancient in the entire country. The foundations of the city were laid around 700 BCE. It is believed that, at the time, it was the most important civic-religious center in the Mexican Highlands. Beneath the lava there are pyramids, which could well dwarf those on the surface. Some have theorized that they might have been the largest man-made pyramids in the world.



Little is known about the people who built Cuicuilco, though the exchange of trade goods shows that they interacted with the Olmec. Archaeology has pointed towards a hierarchical society, with chiefs at the top and slaves at the bottom. These were a deeply religious people, who buried their dead with ceramic grave goods. Skulls have been found, with teeth filed into sharp spikes. These were a people fearsome to behold.

The artwork from Cuicuilco was exquisite. A new era of ceramics was born here, starting around 600 BCE. Their pottery was unique to the age and highly prized in distant cities, amongst other tribes. This wasn't merely bowls and cups. They were idols made in the image of deities, demonstrating remarkable craftsmanship.


An artist's impression of Cuicuilco in its heyday

Their city must have been spectacular. Terraces, plazas and many residences have been uncovered. They had engineering knowledge - irrigation ditches fed their fields and brought water from the lake into the city; canals ran like arteries through their streets. There is evidence of warfare or attack. Fortifications surrounded them.

But mostly what would have been seen, from a vantage point on the highlands, were the oval and conical shapes of the farmer's cottages. For miles around the ceremonial center, there were the fields. Corn, maize, beans, squash and tomatoes were amongst the crops cultivated here. Smaller temples, some with up to five altars, dotted the landscape between the massed agriculture.

Cuicuilco sprawled, the mega-city of its day, much like its modern counterpart, Mexico City. Thousands of people were attracted into its midst, generations of them adding and building and expanding. Their gods grew and changed in prominence. By the end, the fire deities had presidence; but that didn't stop the volcano erupting.


Eruption of Xitle by Gonzales Camarena
Xitle blew twice, once in 50 BCE and once in 400 CE. This cinder cone volcano still stands above Mexico City, in the Ajusco range to the south-east. The pyroclastic flow of lava, from both major eruptions, covered substantial parts of the city of Cuicuilco. The final one led to its abandonment. From hereon, the culture of the population can be seen spread out across Mexico; while the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán was founded further down in the valley, beside and upon the lake.

For those campaigning against further modern development of the area, the importance of the history is at the forefront. This was one of the most prominent early cultural centers in Meso-America; yet too few digs have been untaken by archaeologists.

However, there is a small, but very vocal group who want work to stop because it's disturbing and obscuring the lava plains. They have pointed out that examining the extent of the previous eruptions might be of vital consideration for future crisis management. After all, if Xitle blows again now, Mexico's capital city is now right in its path. The homes of many of Mexico's richest residents, including the President, is on top of the area buried before.

There are also some who say that the Cuicuilco people never quite went away. There are pervasive stories of the ghosts of priests and sacrificial victims, in the homes of those living atop the lava plains. Perhaps they have an urgent message, from personal experience, for those intent on ignoring the huge swathes of volcanic rock. Or maybe they are just stories.



Cuicuilco is open to the public, as both an archaeological site of historical importance and a nature reserve. As well as the interest in the site itself, its heights afford a stunning view over Mexico City. Tourists and locals alike are often found strolling across it, climbing onto the summit of its remaining pyramid.

During the spring equinox (around March 21st), there is a sudden boom in visitors. The area becomes once again a place of religious pilgrimage, as people gather to greet the dawn. The sun's rays, on that morning, from the top of the pyramid is believed to refresh the spirit and bring blessings upon their lives in the following year.



Whatever your beliefs, Cuicuilco is a beautiful place to meander upon. It is recommended to anyone visiting Mexico City.

Two Ancient Artefacts Unearthed in Mexico

This has been a great week in Mexican archaeology, as two important artefacts have been uncovered, in different locations in the country.

The first was in the Maya ruins of Tonina, Chiapas. The 5 foot (1.5 meter) figurines depict cross-legged warriors, with their hand tied behind their backs. They are carved from limestone blocks and date from 695 CE. Fortunately, much of the guesswork about their purpose is removed, as the statues include inscriptions. They show prisoners, who are destined to become offerings to deity, alongside fire and incense, on the field of battle.

These findings have provided intriguing evidence that the city of Copan allied with the Maya tribes of Palenque at this time. It is a fact that has been long suspected by historians, as a lot of circumstantial information exists pointing to such a partnership. The aim of these series of battles was control of the powerful Tonina area. It was a prize that was important enough for human sacrifices to be made.

Tonina today exists as ruins. It has a series of pyramids, rising in terraces above a central plaza. The site includes a ballcourt and 100s of carved monuments. The famous stucco sculptures are here. There are also several mysteries; like why a design of statue exists here, dating from the 9th century CE, which hadn't previously been in evidence since the much earlier Olmec people reigned supreme.

Tonina is the central of a huge archaeological project, seeking to shed more light on this vital period in Maya history. This was the Late Classic, when the last widely marked Long Count of their calendar ended. The date is etched into many of the monuments here.

During this time, the Maya people lived in staunchly independent city states; however, the seeds of political and economic unity, across the Maya world as a whole, had been cast. It was also an era of warfare, as each tribe battled for supremacy in the widening social structure; hence the appearance of the statues of the warrior-prisoner sacrificial victims.

However, experts have cautioned against leaping to the conclusion that Copan tribes were involved in the fight for Tonina. The inscriptions, on the newly discovered figurines reference the inauguration of a new ballcourt in the city. They may turn to have nothing to do with these critical wars after all.

The Tonina complex is open to the public. The nearest modern town is Ocosingo, in the state of Chiapas. As well as the impressive structures, there is also a site museum providing a context to its history. A large selection of artefacts, uncovered in Tonina, are on display here.

This week's second artefact discovery is Aztec in origin. It is a sixty tonne monolith, depicting a currently unidentified rain god, which was dug up further west, in the state of Morelos.

Construction workers were preparing land for a shopping center, beside a main highway leading out of Cuautla City, when their diggers uncovered the stone. Work immediately ceased, as the archaeologists moved in to complete the unearthing; and to take steps to preserve the carved artefact for future study. It has been found in the general vicinity of the historical Aztec site of Xochicalco, so may well have been linked to the people there.

Early speculation is that the deity shown, in carved markings on the stone, is a god of corn and water. Amidst the large number of hieroglyphics, there are a lot of symbols relating to agriculture and rain accompanying His image. The known Aztec god, Tlaloc, accompanies the unidentified god on the stone. Tlaloc has been associated with many things. He is the God of rain, fire, fertility, crops, agricultural, storms, thunder and lightning, leprosy and the south.

Raul Gonzalez, an archaeologist called to the monolith, reports, "These signs on the rock are fundamentally associated with agriculture and water. We think it's highly probable that it was used during rituals to ask for rain and it was placed in a position facing Popocatepetl."

Popocatepetl is one of Mexico's active volcanoes. Standing at 17,802 ft (5,426 m) high, it is clearly visible from Mexico City to the north. The popular tourist town of Puebla nestles just below its eastern slopes. This violent volcano has a long history of major eruptions; 15 of them have occurred during the past 500 years, with the latest at the beginning of last month. In 2000, tens of thousands of people were evacuated from residences within its range, as a huge eruption was signalled.

The third and last time it truly blew its top was in 800 CE. This event would have seen a massive Plinian eruption; resulting in an unstoppable pyroclastic lava flow, which would have filled the basins below for miles around.

It is thought that the creation of the monolith, facing Popocatepetl, happened just a century before. The great-grandchildren, of those carving and raising it, would have witnessed that cataclysmic explosion. It seems fitting that their monument as been uncovered, just as the volcano has been building up its greatest displays in 1,200 years. If it transpires that the unknown deity is an Aztec god of volcano appeasement, then the discovery is also lucky. We might just need Him again!

The gigantic Aztec monolith is currently roped off, in situ, though it is clearly visible from the main highway connecting Cuautla and Xochicalco. It's too soon to be certain what the future holds for its care, though the land developers are naturally still hoping for their shopping center on the site.

If the monolith is moved, then it is likely that will be to the the UNESCO listed World Heritage site of Xochicalco. The same people, after all, almost certainty created both it and the structures there, often during the same period of time. This remarkable place of impressive Aztec history is open to the public.

Whatever happens to the artefact, it is sure to increase our knowledge of the ancient Aztec people, as those hieroglyphics start to be translated in their entirety.

Chalma and the Dark Lord of the Cave

Around the mountains, the pilgrims snaked. Their incense filled the air around them with thick, scented clouds, issuing out from burners. Their clothes and hair were colorful with the season's flowers. Once night fell, they lit their flaming torches and carried them high. It took days to reach the sacred spring, along the spiral ways, but this was the last rite before arriving at their destination.


Bathing in the waters, drinking them; cleansed inside and out and holy now. They thrice walked around the ancient Ahuehuete tree, hung through with offerings, flowers, fruit and little bags containing umbilical cords. They were ready to enter the sanctuary. The Dark Lord of the Cave was waiting.

Oxtoteotl is an Aztec deity. He's the God of War; the Destiny of the Night; the Dark Lord. His shrine is the back of a cave, which takes days of a snaking, spiral pathway through the mountains to reach. There is evidence of human sacrifice in His worship. He was one of the most popular Gods of the Aztec age. Pilgrims came from great distances to visit His shrine, above the modern-day town of Chalma, in Mexico State. He could heal; and He could protect.

In 1537, Augustian monks appeared in the area. They watched the thousands of pilgrims making their progress up the mountain-side. The religion was strong here, but two of their number, Brother Sebastian de Tolentino and Brother Nicolas Perea, were determined to smash it. This was their calling. This is where Christ should be.

They spread out amongst those gathered, evangelizing and talking about the 'Spanish God'. They visited the sanctuary and surveyed the dark, cylindrical shape of the Oxtoteotl stone. They saw the people dancing before him. The Augustian were appalled. For three days, they walked about the pilgrim paths, encouraging people to tear down the statue and convert to Christ. People laughed in their faces.


It was at night when Brother Sebastian de Tolentino and Brother Nicolas Perea climbed the mountain to the sanctuary for the second time. Their intent was clear. They were going to pull down the icon themselves. They would prove, with their bare hands, that their God was stronger and that nothing would happen, if they descrecated the centuries old sacred cave.

They arrived to find it devoid of worshippers, but a miracle had occurred! In place of Oxtoteotl now stood a statue of the crucified Christ, with his skin burnt a dark black. The floor was littered with the fractured remains of the Aztec icon, smashed to smithereens. No-one claimed responsibility. No-one had seen the statue being conveyed up the steep paths. God must have done it. The friars reported that, as the first Aztec pilgrims arrived, they all fell to their knees in 'apostolic piety'. The holy brothers wasted no time in converting them to Catholicism.


(There is another version, which says that the friars sculpted the Oxtoteotl stone into a representation of Christ on the cross. It's black because the Aztec stone was obsidian black.)

In the years that followed, the mouth of the cave was enlarged and a shrine dedicated to St Michael was established there. The people still visited in the same way, climbing the paths with incense and flowers; bathing in the spring and encircling the Ahuehuete tree.


Inside the cave, they danced to the dark Christ now that Oxtoteotl had gone. They left their offerings and were cleansed of their sins. They petitioned for healing and protection. The Augustian monks set up a monastery to cater to their needs.

Over a hundred years later, in 1683, a huge church was built upon the canyon floor. The image of Christ was brought down from the sanctuary and placed into it. El Convento Real y Sanctuaria de Nuestro Señor Jesus Christo y San Miguel de los Cuevas de Chalma (The Royal Monastery and Sanctuary of Our Lord Jesus Christ and Saint Michael of the Caves of Chalma) stands there still.




It is the second most visited site of Catholic pilgrimage in Mexico (the first is the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City). Mexico state tourist board estimates that over 2 million people per year make the trip to Chalma. 50,000 people per day is the norm. Most are Mexicans, but some people fly in from countries all over the world.

The town has a plentiful number of lodgings and restaurants, as a result of the demand from pilgrims. Amongst the attractions are the church; the 17th century monastery; the cave up in the mountains; and many organized events, including parades and open-air ceremonies, in addition to regular services held inside the church.


There is also a high emphasis on public safety and crowd control. Patrols watch from both ground and in the air, with regular sightings of helicopters. Experts on crowd control train their apprentices here.

A river of people. We are immersed in a river of people. The sanctuary of Chalma is situated at the bottom of a canyon in the heart of this village. The passageway down into that canyon is narrow, lined with hundreds of vendors selling food and trinkets and crucifixes.

A river of people. A river of beautiful brown faces. A river that murmurs with language not our own. Are we pilgrims... or are we just tourists today?

... If you are new here, this is a sanctuary full of people who love you even if you are a stranger - just as my friend and I were loved and cared for by a river of strangers in Mexico. You are God's Beloved.

'Chalma Pilgrimage: Baptism in Foreign Waters' by Rev Karen Christensen

The crowds become part of the spiritual wholeness. Time within them passes without incident.


But there is a tragic reason why Chalma has become so adept at ensuring the safety of its millions of visitors. On February 13th, 1991, a Holy Week ritual involved the signs from the ashes, smoke lifted from a ceremonial flame inside the church. As it took place, the news reached those outside that they were missing it. There was a sudden stampede of humanity into the limited space inside. Twenty people died and forty more were seriously injured, mostly due to compression force, as the crowd surged. It is a scene that Chalma authorities never want to see repeated here again. Security has been stepped up ever since, so that no God will receive another human sacrifice here.

Holy Week, Easter, Lent and the feast day of the Christ of Chalma (July 1st) are the times when most pilgrims are in the sanctuaries. The most devout will visit it three times during their lives. The area is so famous that it's a common saying, in Mexico, that something can't be done until someone has 'danced at Chalma'.


Each time, they leave with their petitions heard and their sins cleansed. They have walked the ways and danced to the Dark Lord of the Cave, be He Oxtoteotl or, more often now, the black skinned Christ Himself. They take the sacred holiness home with them. They are truly blessed, in this place of power.

Chihuahua: The World's Smallest Dog

There are 1,700 different species of animals indigenious to Mexico. Some are world famous, yet one stands out above them all. The national emblem of our country is the Mexican golden eagle, but it might as well be the chihuahua.


This is the world's smallest dog, standing at around 6-10" (15-23cm) tall. It is named after the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. Along with chocolate, coffee, corn and tequila, the breed is one of the country's most successful exports. Most of the globe is familiar with the little guy.

The ancestor of the chihuahua was slightly bigger. This was the techichi, a favorite dog of the Aztec people. It apparently had a mystical significance too. The techichi were thought to be so loyal that they would guide their human companion's soul through the Underworld into safety. It would fight off all evil spirits in their path. As a result, the poor techichi was often sacrificed and burnt, along with their owner, so that the two could journey on together.

Even after the coming of Christianity to Mexico, this practise continued. Only now, the techichi were used as scapegoats. Cremating one in a human funeral pyre meant that the techihi dog would take on the human's sins. Thus its owner could carry on straight into Heaven.


Techichi
The techichi, as a distinct breed, is extinct now, but its genes live on in the tiny chihuahua.

There is a theory that Spanish conquistadors brought with them a toy breed, like the Chinese crested dog. This mated with the techichi, in order to create a brand new hybrid, which eventually became the chihuahua. Others argue that images and other artifacts, including remains, have been found in Maya and Aztec archaeological sites. These obviously pre-date 1530, pointing to the fact that chihuahuas were in Mexico long before the Spanish came with their pets.

In 1904, the American Kennel Club officially registered the breed of toy dog, that the fashionable society ladies of Texas, Arizona and New Mexico were buying in Mexico. It was called the Chihuahua Dog, as in the breed from Chihuahua, though that quickly became shortened to a chihuahua. This is the moniker by which it is known throughout the world.

(For a moment there, it could have been called the Texas Dog or the Arizona Dog, which is where they were most prevalent in the USA, at the start of the 20th century. Today, they are stereotypically seen, in Mexico, as the pets of Manhattan's social elite, hence the dog's nickname here of 'New Yorker'.)


It is a popular misconception that chihuahuas have to be pampered by humans in order to survive. They were certainly the dogs of kings (the Aztec monarchs all owned one), but they have been known to form wild packs too. One such pack famously took up residence in the ruins of Tenochtitlán Palace, in Mexico City. Their ancestors had been abandoned after their Aztec owners, all members of the nobility, had been killed in the Spanish invasion of the 16th century.

Generations of this pack of chihuahuas lived there for three centuries, right up until the construction of the National Palace of Mexico, in 1850, near to the site. It's hard to build grand architecture, with dozens of 10" dogs yapping in defense of their patch, so, unfortunately, the wild chihuahuas were removed.


Chihuahuas are usually differentiated between two types: long-hair and smooth-hair. They are genetically exactly the same breed, but their fur is respectively long or short. (Smooth hair doesn't necessary mean 'smooth'. It can be velvetty or coarse, as long as it's short.) As show dogs, they shouldn't weigh more than 6lbs, though 2-4lbs is the ideal.

They are the favorite of the world's celebrities, with actresses and socialites in particular often seen with one under their arm. Famous chihuahua owners include: Marilyn Monroe, Sharon Osbourne, Paris Hilton, Hilary Duff and Cesar Millan. Chihuahuas often turn up in shows and in films, including 'Evil Con Carne', 'Invader Zim', 'Batman Returns', 'That's So Raven', 'The Soup', 'Legally Blonde' and 'Transformers'. They've also advertized Taco Bell. Let's not also forget that Ren Höek, the eponymous hero of 'Ren and Stimpy', is a chihuahua.

Boo Boo, the world's smallest, living, adult dog, is a chihuahua. She is 4" high, 6.5" long and weighs just 24oz. She can be found in Raceland, Kentucky, in the USA.

Spring Equinox at Mexico's Ancient Monuments

It is nearly dawn on the Spring Equinox and the crowds gather at the foot of El Castillo. They are about witness the descent of the God on Earth, as He passes down the steps and into the ground beneath. It is guaranteed. It is seen in Chichén Itzá every year and it is about to happen right now. An expectant murmur passes through, then a pause and suddenly an almighty roar of exaltation.


Spring Equinox at Chichén Itzá
It is only at the equinox that a stunning piece of Maya architectural genius becomes apparent. The side of the steps were fashioned in such a manner that, when the sun shines on them in a certain way, the feathered serpent God, Kukulkan, can be clearly seen. He is picked out in light and shade, with his snake-like back undulating down the steps. This can only be seen at dawn on the equinox.

Thousands traditionally congregate at the base of El Castillo (aka the Temple of Kukulkan) to witness this. Many will have been there all night, in a vigil, waiting. They are not all Mexicans. In fact, the vast majority are spiritual tourists, who have come to join their Mexican brothers and sisters, in this awe-inspiring event.

Kukulkan arrives to raptuous cheers; though many stand in silent meditation. All are allowing the calm, positive energy of the moment to penetrate their spirits. Traditional dancing and music soon turns the religious into a fiesta, as such things often do in Mexico.

Meanwhile, NTD TV have reported upon the events in Teotihuacan, near Mexico City: 'Thousands Flock to Mexico's "Pyramid of the Sun" to Welcome Spring Equinox'.



The Spring (or Vernal) Equinox occurs when day and night are exactly equal in length; there are twelve hours between sunset and dawn. The Earth, as it orbits around the sun, also rocks back and forth on its pole. (Imagine a spinning top, swaying as it spins.) During Winter Solstice (mid December) our side of the planet is tipped away from the sun (less light/heat = winter); during Summer Solstice (mid June) the hemisphere is tipped towards the sun (more light/heat = summer). During the equinoxes, we are at the mid-point between the two (equal light/heat = spring and autumn).

Spring Equinox was important to the ancient tribes of Mexico. It was the time when they planted their crops, safe in the knowledge that winter was finally over. Autumn Equinox was the signal that everything should be harvested, before it was ruined. This is why so much of the architecture incorporates features that tell onlookers when the equinoxes are occurring.

An estimated 460,000 visitors arrived at twelve of Mexico's ancient monuments, at dawn on March 21st, 2011. The actual equinox had occurred late the night before, but it was the dawn sun that would provide the first visible sign of it, without the aid of hi-tech equipment.


Spring Equinox at Teotihuacan
This is obviously an annual event, so everyone was ready for it. Representatives from the emergency services and National Anthropology and History Institute (INAH) meet months in advance, in order to co-ordinate their roles, so that the crowds can be safely managed. For example, so many people arrived at Teotihuacan, this year, that each had to queue for three hours, in order to spend just ten minutes at the summit of the Pyramid of the Sun. This had been anticipated and the human resources were on hand to ensure that this happened in good cheer.

However, there is concern that so many visitors are placing an unusual strain upon the monuments themselves. This year, for the first time, INAH issued rules, such as the prohibition of food, alcohol, barbecues, backpacks, chairs, umbrellas or pet in the vicinity of the ruins.

Meanwhile, local Pagan groups privately agreed not to climb upon those pyramids, which are open to the public. Antonio Vazquez, a Brujo Mayor (High Priest/Chief Witch), released a statement that his coven would be performing their ceremony near to the Pyramid of the Sun, rather than on it.


Spring Equinox at Tulum
The Spring Equinox celebrations are huge in Mexico. Many of those participating will either wear tradition costumes, based around Aztec or Maya historical designs, or else will don white outfits. The belief is that white absorbs the sun's enriching energies during this ethereal, beautiful time. It certainly feels very special to participate in such a gathering.


Chichén Itzá
Various tours, to suit every wallet or time-frame, to the most famous of all the Maya ruins.

Tulum & Xel-Ha All Inclusive
Combine Maya history with natural beauty! Tour the Tulúm ruins, then swim in the Xel Ha natural aquarium.

Montezuma's Headdress Could Be Coming Home

Original headdress (Museum of Ethnology, Vienna)
It has taken three years of long negotiation, on top of decades of lobbying and centuries of wishful thinking. Now that is drawing to a conclusion: the headdress, believed to have belonged to the last Aztec king, might be returning to Mexico. So many of these treasures were taken from the country, during the Spanish conquest, that only reproductions remain. Now Mexicans may finally get the chance to see the original.

The headdress was removed from the country, during the 16th century, by Spanish conquistadors. Curios from the New World were big business then, as connoisseurs scrambled to see and understand what was being discovered so far overseas. Artifacts could be used in politics and religion, justifying the taking of land from apparently barbaric, Pagan people. Priests could hold up siezed icons to illustrate cautionary sermons about sympathizing with Satan. Alternatively, items could be bought by collectors, to be displayed as novelties.


Reproduction headdress (Museo Nacional de Antropología, Mexico City)
This particular Aztec headdress had found its way, by 1575, into the private collection of Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria. Ferdinand was the son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, and the younger brother of Maximilian II. He controlled substantial territories of his own, but even the vast revenue from those couldn't match his appetite for purchasing art. He died leaving huge debts, but also a famous collection in Castle Ambras, Tyrol, Austria. Amongst them was a horde of priceless Mexican antiquities.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the treasures of Castle Ambras were deposited in the Museum of Ethnology, in Vienna, Austria. European experts rushed in to examine the artifacts, finding particular fascination in the headdress. However, all of them believed that it was a mantle. It was left to a visiting US anthropologist, Zelia Nuttall, to explain its real function. She also identified it as being from Quetzalapanecayotl Palace.


Artist's impression of Montezuma wearing the headdress
Whether the headdress had been attributed as belonging to Montezuma before is debatable, but it certainly was afterwards. Montezuma (aka Moctezuma II) was the most famous of Aztec rulers. He lived in the city that later became Mexico City; and did so at the time of the Spanish conquest. There is no actual proof that the headdress ever belonged to him. But it could well have. The headdress was taken from the right place, at the right time. Anyway, its designation, as Montezuma's headdress, added a layer of intrigue that brought in the European crowds to view its exhibition. In Mexico, it is also commonly called Penacho de Moctezuma.

Mexican historians have an different interpretation. They believe that it may have been worn by a priest. It's been suggested that it may have been a mantle all along. Called a quetzalquémitl (feather cape), it would have transformed the priest into a living embodiment of the God, Quetzalcoátl. It is to examine it more closely, so that these questions may be addressed, which is the main impetus for asking for its return.

The Mexican Ministry of Foreign Affairs (SRE) and the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) have been locked in talks, for the past three years, with their counterparts in the Austrian government and Kunsthistorisches Museum officials. The Museum of Ethnology, where the headdress is currently on display, is under the jurisdiction the Kunsthistorisches Museum. Mexico's President Felipe Calderon has been personally involved in the negotiations.


As a gesture of good-will, the headdress will be exchanged for a golden stagecoach used by Mexican Emperor Maximilian. He was a member of the Austrian royal family. However, the Austrians have made it quite clear that the exchange is a temporary loan. Sabine Haag, director of Kunsthistorisches Museum, told an Austrian radio show that the headdress belongs in Austria.

We understand of course that the Penacho has a deep symbolic and spiritual meaning for Mexico's native population, and we are therefore in the process of coming up with conservation measures in order to store and exhibit it as part of Austria's and Mexico's cultural heritage.
Sabine Haag, on Radio Oe1

The final stretch of the talks are centring on how to transport both the headdress and the stagecoach, with due regard to legalities of both countries. Then experts need only to address the practicalities of sending such historically precious treasures halfway across the world.

Christmas in Mexico: Piñatas

Piñatas are popular at any time of the year. Whenever children are present at a celebration, you can bet that there will be piñatas. But Christmas time, in Mexico, is when they really come into their own. Christmas without a piñata? Unthinkable!



A piñata is a thin clay pot, covered in vibrant decoration. Paper mache is stuck to it, creating a host of wonderful designs in a blaze of color. Mexico markets will sell them in the shape of superheroes, flowers, animals, popular toys, celestial objects; you name it and there will probably be a piñata in that design. For Christmas, there are piñatas of reindeer, Santa Claus, stars, baubles and many other festive shapes. However, the original is that in the image above.

It was introduced into Mexico, as an Italian cultural item, by early Christian friars. The coming of the Spanish meant a lot of upheaval for native people. Wars saw the destruction of their homes and crops; while European diseases, like smallpox, had never been in the Americas before. The population here had no immunity and the resulting death-toll was even higher than in the fighting itself. This meant that a lot of people were starving.

Pope Sixtus V suggested that piñatas might lure these people into the missionaries and churches. The clay pot was filled with food, especially nuts and fruit, then hung beside the nativity scenes. The people were given sticks and the Catholic concept of sin was explained to them. The spikes of the original piñata represented the seven deadly sins. As they hit the piñatas, with their sticks, they were symbolically smashing those sins. This was done blindfolded, as a sign of faith. Their reward was the food, which cascaded down, once the clay pot inside was sufficiently broken.



However, some historians dispute the idea that it was Christian missionaries who brought the piñata to Mexico. They merely adapted a ceremony that already existed. Scholars point to the fact that the Aztec God of War, Huitzilopochtli, was honored with piñatas. The clay pots were filled with food and precious items. The outside of the pot was decorated with feathers and beads. Worshippers hit the pot with a stick to shatter it, thus allowing the God's bounty to fall at their feet. It was a reminder that fighting will gain rewards. After all, this was the God of War.

There is also some evidence that the Aztec God, honored in this way, was Tlaloc. As he was the Rain God, then the pots were filled with water. People took turns to smash it. The person ultimately drenched was the one upon whom Tlaloc had bestowed his blessing.

These days, piñatas are more likely to be filled with candy and small toys. Any child old enough to wield a stick may take their turn at whacking it. Eventually, the pot smashes and children scramble to pick up their treats. It's all great fun!

The Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe

It was December 9, 1531, when Juan Diego first saw Her. By December 12th, the last of Her appearances, even the Bishop was convinced. They were meetings that would change the spiritual face, not only of Mexico, but the whole of the Americas. Some might argue that it bolstered Catholicism itself, right in the midst of its darkest hour. Five centuries later, practically the entire of Mexico were out on the streets yesterday, celebrating the fact that it had happened at all.

Juan Diego wasn't his birth name. That was Cuauhtlatoatzin. He had been born into the Nahua tribe, in a village just to the north of modern-day Mexico City, on the eve of a period of tumultuous change. He married, but doesn't appear to have been blessed with children. He farmed his own land and, as a sideline, wove mats. Then, in 1521, the Spanish arrived.

The couple witnessed the rampage of Hernán Cortés through their country. They survived the conquest and, moreover, were counted amongst the few that welcomed their conquistadors. In particular, the pair were convinced by the evangelism of the Franciscan monks, who travelled with Cortés. In 1524, they were baptized into the Catholic faith. They were in the minority then, as very few Mexicans were interested in following suit. Cuauhtlatoatzin was fifty years old. It was now that he became Juan Diego. His wife took the baptism name Maria Lucia.

It was a Saturday, when Juan Diego set off on his usual weekend walk around Tepeyac Hill to the church. He was nearly 60 now and widowed. The air may have seem mild to the younger, more spritely villagers, but it poked coldly at his bones. He had a tilmàtli (a short cape, woven from cactus fibre) draped around his shoulders.

The hill itself had a Pagan past. It had been dedicated, by his own people, to the Goddess Tonantzin; She, who guided those in war or childbirth, and whose name meant 'seven flowers' after the crops that She oversaw. Perhaps Diego remembered those stories; maybe he didn't. But when the young girl called to him from its slopes, he knew immediately that She wasn't human. He was looking at someone divine. She was only about fourteen years old, but she called him 'my little son'.

Juan Diego trekked up the hill towards Her. He recalled the singing of birds and saw the light around her. She was dressed as an Atzec princess, with skin as dark as his own. She spoke to him in his native Nahuatl, but She called him Juan Diego.

She was no Pagan goddess. He knew that in the very soul of him; it was confirmed when Her message was for the Franciscan Bishop, Fray Juan de Zumárraga. She was the Mother of God Herself.

Juan Diego found the strength in his bones, the air in his lungs and the speed in his legs. He hurtled down the hill feeling like a young man, intent on seeking out the Bishop. He located him in the church, where the message was gushed out. The Virgin Mary was on Tepeyac Hill. She wanted a shrine there, built in Her honor. She had a promise in return and this had been memorized, word for word.

"I will demonstrate, I will exhibit, I will give all my love, my compassion, my help and my protection to the people. I am your merciful mother, the merciful mother of all of you who live united in this land, and of all mankind, of all those who love me, of those who cry to me, of those who seek me, of those who have confidence in me. Here I will hear their weeping, their sorrow and will remedy and alleviate all their multiple sufferings, necessities and misfortunes."

Zumárraga obviously thought that he had a madman on his hands. Well, you would, wouldn't you? Someone rushing in, telling you that they've seen the Mother of All, and that She wanted something building for Her. Especially when the Lady in question sounded very much like the Aztec Mother Goddess, for whom the hill was dedicated. It all sounded like a bit of a ruse.

But Diego was one of the Bishop's few converts. He couldn't just kick him out without some humouring words. Zumárraga told Diego to go back and get a sign that this was true.

Juan Diego returned to Tepeyac Hill and found the Lady still there. He explained that the Bishop needed a sign. She smiled back at him, still in Her aspect as a teenage girl. She told him to request again, of the Bishop, that Her shrine be built. Diego didn't feel worthy. He begged Her to send someone else. She was adamant that Diego conveyed her message.

The next day, Sunday 10th December, Diego tried again. The Bishop repeated his comment that he needed a sign, to prove that She was who She said She was. Diego set off to the hill. She was waiting for him. This time, She promised that there would be a sign. It would be something to convince even the most sceptical heart and it would begin the following day.

The next day, Juan Diego waited anxiously, but the news which came wasn't glorious at all. His uncle, Juan Diego Bernardino, lay suddenly ill and dying. He was very close to the old man. When Diego had been orphaned, as a child, Bernardino had taken him in and raised him as his own. Diego rushed to his uncle's side, but the prognosis looked bad. Diego tended to him all through the night.

By the early hours of the 12th, it was obvious that it wasn't healers, but a priest that was needed now. Someone had to come and administer the last rites. Diego volunteered to fetch Bishop Zumárraga. But halfway around the hill, in the murky light of 4am, Diego heard the Lady calling his name. Perhaps there was hope. She answered directly to a higher power. He raced to speak with Her.



With her opening words, She assured him that his uncle would survive his fever. Then She asked Diego to gather up flowers growing on the hill. This was December, there were no flowers up there. Diego frowned, then looked around. There were flowers. There were hundreds of them. He hurried to pick an armful of them to present to Her. The Lady just smiled reassuringly and bade him remove his tilmàtli. As he draped the cloak over his arms, She arranged seven of the finest blooms inside it.

Diego took them to Bishop Zumárraga. He was no doubt roused from his bed to receive them, but the Lady had ordered that no-one but the Bishop himself was to open the folded tilmàtli. The Bishop stood before Diego, but didn't appear moved to take the package. Diego opened it for him, releasing a corner, so that the flowers cascaded to the floor of the church. Inside, in a perfect representation imprinted into the fabric, was an image of the Lady Herself.

Bishop Zumárraga fell to his knees.

On the other side of the hill, in a deathbed room, Bernardino was also on his knees. He had felt the mortal illness lift from him. His veins cooling from the fever. He had found a Lady, resplendent in light, standing in his room. "Tell them," She said, "I am the Ever Virgin, Holy Mary of Guadalupe." Then She was gone.



News of the incident spread like wildfire through the native peoples of Mexico. Within the next handful of years, 8 million of them had converted to the Spanish religion, Catholicism. This was at a time when, in Europe, many were defecting to Protestantism. The influx of new adherrents to the old faith is credited, by some, with saving it.

The Feast of Our Lady of Guadalupe is celebrated throughout Mexico and the Americas, on December 12th, each year.